John Vespasian

Aristotle (384-322 BC) believed that ethics have a clear, definite purpose. He defined ethics as the science of achieving eudaimonia, which means “a happy, thriving, flourishing life.” John Vespasian explains that Aristotle argued that human beings can only achieve happiness by living a life of virtue. Unfortunately, in some cases, he wrongly identified virtue with the “golden mean,” a middle-of-t...

Like Schopenhauer would do twenty-four centuries later, Aristotle regarded practical wisdom (“phronesis” in Greek) as a crucial ingredient of a happy life. John Vespasian explains that, in his “Nicomachean Ethics,” Aristotle defined phronesis as a skill that enables us to choose timely the correct course of action and for the correct reasons. In other words, phronesis is the daily implementation o...

John Vespasian explains that the reasons why philosophy books trace the inception of existentialism to Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) are rather weak. Nonetheless, they have attained the status of mainstream opinion and deserve a robust refutation. First of all, Schopenhauer himself never declared himself to be an existentialist, not anything close to that term. You won’t find such a concept in h...

John Vespasian explains that, in his early years, Schopenhauer had declared allegiance to the epistemological doctrines of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). I am referring to the theory of concept formation presented by Kant in his book “Critique of pure reason” (1781). In 1808, Schopenhauer published his PhD dissertation “On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason,” stating his overall a...

John Vespasian explains that, when Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) began to question mainstream philosophical ideas, he expected heavy opposition and criticism. In this respect, he was not disappointed. Almost all twentieth-century thinkers have opposed Schopenhauer and his theory of the will. Hefty opposition was no surprise to Schopenhauer precisely because he had presented his ideas as improvem...

John Vespasian explains that the life and works of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) are giving us crucial insights on how to achieve happiness. To this end, he devoted years to studying Western and Eastern thinkers and compiling their best recommendations. Then he put them into practice and recorded what works and what doesn’t. Schopenhauer regarded the achievement of happiness as a sequence of ste...

While most nineteenth-century philosophers focused their efforts on epistemology and social ethics, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) stands alone in his concern for individual well- being and happiness. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer rejected the trend set by Kant, Fichte and Hegel because he could not see any practical application. Those three thinkers are categorised in philosophy book...

John Vespasian explains that Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) would have been amused to see philosophers like Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) theorise about anxiety and personal authenticity. Sartre didn’t regard as self-evident that individuals are aware of their freedom and the need to make constant choices. In contrast to Sartre and other existentialists, Schopenhauer considered self-evident that h...

John Vespasian explains that Aristotle used a systematic method for drawing conclusions from empirical observations. His concept of reality revolves around the idea of “substance,” which actually means “entity” in the sense employed by Aristotle. Every entity, he taught, is composed of matter that takes a certain form, configuration, or shape. For Aristotle, it is the “form” what characterises eac...

John Vespasian explains that Aristotle placed purpose at the very centre of his view of ethics. Purpose is the magnet that enables polarisation. It is the force that keeps things aligned and harmonious. What’s the purpose of life according to Aristotle? To attain happiness (in Greek “eudaimonia”). He defined happiness as “thriving” or “flourishing,” a state of high, steady enjoyment. According to...

John Vespasian explains that Aristotle addressed friendship in his “Nicomachean Ethics.” He viewed friendship as indispensable for leading a happy life, but identified three types of friendships: those based on utility, those based on pleasure, and those based on shared values or virtues. The latter is by far the most valuable. Friendships of utility are based on mutual interest. People collaborat...

John Vespasian explains that Aristotle’s views on the natural world established the basis of scientific thought and civilisation. Aristotle’s philosophy is relaying on experience, observation, and logical reasoning. His approach to natural philosophy consists of studying the cosmos and nature through careful observation and analysis. His three foundational works in this area are “Metaphysics,” “Ph...

John Vespasian explains that Aristotle presented his political philosophy in his works “Politics” and “Nicomachean Ethics.” He believed that humans are political by nature. By “political,” he meant that humans prefer living in communities to enhance the enjoyment of life. In his work “Politics,” Aristotle described different forms of government and compared their advantages and disadvantages. His...

John Vespasian explains that Aristotle’s views on politics and governance can be summed up in a few sentences: depending on the number of rulers (one, a few, everybody), political systems for the common good can be classified into monarchies, aristocracies, and polities. When rulers abuse their power, those three systems shall be named tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy. In order to prevent abuse o...

John Vespasian explains that Aristotle came up with the two key ideas of balanced governance, but history has done everything possible to wipe them out from people’s memory. Aristotle’s first principle of governance is that rulers should work for the common good. He didn’t exclude any government form (monarchy, aristocracy, polity) as long as the ruler (one, a few, every citizen) keeps the common...

John Vespasian explains that Aristotle presented his theory of justice in “Nicomachean Ethics.” He distinguished between two types of justice. On the one hand, distributive justice, and on the other hand, reparation or rectification justice. Distributive justice deals with the distribution of tangible goods or jobs, and intangible honours. The purpose of this type of justice is to ensure that each...

John Vespasian explains that mainstream philosophers call Schopenhauer a pessimist and consider his work uninteresting. They argue that Schopenhauer had little concern for social issues and that, for that reason, his ideas are unsuited for today’s world. However, if you devote time to studying Schopenhauer, you will learn to appreciate the finesse and soundness of his analysis. His works provide i...

Although his lifestyle was unpretentious, modesty was not a characteristic of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860). John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer did not hide that he regarded himself as a genius. He considered other philosophers, with few exceptions, as misguided fools. Why did Schopenhauer consider himself a genius? Surely not because of his productivity. In terms of output, he was not ex...

John Vespasian explains that Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) had no problem to accept that he was an eccentric. In fact, he considered it a privilege to be categorised as an eccentric. He considered it a confirmation of the originality of his ideas. Schopenhauer’s key contribution to philosophy is the theory of the will, that is, the belief that the will (“life force”) exerts a strong influence on...

John Vespasian explains that history provides excellent examples of the philosophy put forward by Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860). For instance, Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD), who had favoured living in accordance with nature. Aurelius’ recipe for happiness is understanding the order of the universe and aligning our actions with it. However, when he talked about “the order of the universe,” he was...

John Vespasian explains that Epictetus, a philosopher from the 1st century AD, provides excellent guidance for the daily practice of the ideas of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860). Schopenhauer was focused on the attainment of happiness, and Epictetus pursued tranquillity and virtue, but in practical terms, their ideas are very close. Epictetus emphasised the distinction between internal and externa...

John Vespasian explains that the art of getting things done effectively and inexpensively underlies the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860). His theory of the will (“life force”) warns us against the lethal consequences of giving way to our instincts without looking at the cost and at the long-term consequences. How do you protect yourself against the negative influence of the will? Scho...

John Vespasian explains that Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) was deeply familiar with Eastern philosophy, in particular Buddhism and Hinduism. He held in high regard the Eastern approach to stress reduction by reducing one’s emotional engagement. In Schopenhauer’s books, you won’t find a call for “nirvana” and other Eastern philosophical concepts. Nonetheless, he put forward recommendations that a...

John Vespasian explains that Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) had unduly pessimistic, gloomy ideas on love and relationships. The study of his ideas in this respect serves an educational purpose because it enables us to learn from Schopenhauer’s mistakes. Schopenhauer’s theory of the will (“life force”) underlies his views on love and relationships. This theory predicates that the will is constantl...

The ideas of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) on love and relationships contain fundamental mistakes. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer did not devote to these matters sufficient attention. As a result, his observations and conclusions leave a lot to be desired. His conception of love and relationships is instinctual. They are driven by the Will (“life force”), argues Schopenhauer, and this...