John Vespasian

People always show their true colours in times of crisis. We can then recognise our true friends, true priorities, and the best and worst parts of our own character. Hardship makes the hero come forth, while the cowards sink into misery. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) faced the hardest period in his life precisely when he was expecting to enjoy the easiest. He had quit his stressful job in Bordea...

The most intriguing aspect in the biography of Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) is his decision, when he was in his late thirties, to abandon a promising career in law and retire to live in the countryside. I have an explanation for Montaigne’s unusual decision: His daily work at the Bordeaux Parliament had made him acutely aware of the social decay in France. He had witnessed cases of confiscation...

I consider the French essayist Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) one of the most underrated philosophers in history. He is not on the same level as Aristotle, Plato and Socrates, but when it comes to personal development, he is one of the best. Montaigne was born in southern France within a family that belonged to the lower aristocracy. His father had made a small fortune as a wholesaler and purchas...

When authors write, they cannot avoid revealing their views and personal history, their traumas and pressing concerns. Consciously or unconsciously, they are giving hints and clues about their own life. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) and his works prove this theory correct. In his essays, Montaigne addressed a wide array of subjects, but could not avoid imprinting his personality and philosophica...

I’m going to point to several examples to illustrate the views of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) on the nature of human existence. The examples are drawn from famous literary works depicting challenging situations that put Schopenhauer’s advice to the test. Before starting with the examples, let me summarise in four paragraphs Schopenhauer’s views on the nature of existence. First, living creatur...

Despite their closeness in time, there are huge differences in intent and content between the ideas of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and those of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). Kant aimed at reconciling empiricism and rationalism, but with little success. The only result of his efforts is to decouple philosophy and science from ethics, leaving the area of values to religion, mysticism, and subjectiv...

The philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) on the unconscious has exerted a vast influence on later thinkers such as Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, or Wilhelm Reich. In his work “The world as will and representation” (1818), Schopenhauer outlined his philosophy of the unconscious. Schopenhauer defined the will as the blind, irrational drive to survive, reproduce, and seek pleasure...

Few historians acknowledge the large influence of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) on psychology, but Schopenhauer’s theory of the will (“life force”) as irrational driver of human psychology had set the background for Freud’s concept of a subconscious. Nowadays, it’s widely accepted that wild impulses often prompt us to seek short-term pleasures at the cost of long-term suffering. Carl Jung (1875-...

Specifically in the works of Carl Rogers, Wilhelm Reich and William James, the twentieth century brought strong criticism of the views on the unconscious presented by Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). Their definitions of the unconscious are based on the ideas developed by Schopenhauer, but only after having narrowed them down to a point where they are almost unrecognisable. In their own ways, Carl...

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) devoted his whole life to the pursuit of truth. He acknowledged that truth is sometimes unpleasant and harsh, but humans are better off when they face problems and take action to solve them. In his major work “The World as Will and Representation,” (1818), Schopenhauer categorised the will (“life force”) as the main driver behind human actions. It exerts massive inf...

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) gave us valuable insights on human behaviour. Let us take a look at historical examples of Schopenhauer’s views on the nature of truth. First of all, Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), a French philosopher, as a worthy predecessor of Schopenhauer. Like Schopenhauer, Montaigne remained outside academic circles, but wrote essays on the nature of truth. Montaigne did not...

John Vespasian explains that Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) was one of the most realistic philosophers in history. He was remarkably talented at analysing problems, reviewing possible solutions, discarding the unworkable, and selecting the most promising amongst the rest. Let me underline the step “discarding the unworkable.” It is something that most philosophers forget to do. They will fall in...

John Vespasian explains that Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) made it particularly clear that he wanted to differentiate himself from his peers. His vast literary achievements are not the result of luck. His philosophy is not the outcome of random circumstances, but of persistence and determination. Montaigne was a master in the art of living because of his unusually high productivity. Even with a...

John Vespasian explains that Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) was aware of the dangers associated to popularity. He also knew the financial advantages that one can draw from it, but after careful reflection, he opted for a quiet lifestyle in the countryside. Montaigne’s choice is remarkable because it entailed a series of drastic changes; he had lived for decades in a sizeable city, pursued a deman...

John Vespasian explains that Montaigne’s essay titled “On the inequality amongst us” is conveying the key lesson from his life, namely, that we should accept without complaints the fact that each person is different, and that all attempts to homogenise people are doomed to fail. Individuals are unequal in intelligence, agility, beauty, skills and personal interests, just to mention a few aspects....

John Vespasian explains that Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) had zero impact on early modern philosophy because his great merit was to look to the past, not to the future. As a result, Montaigne developed a new, fresh, truly modern mentality that put him decades ahead of his literary peers. When Montaigne looked at history, mostly antique history, he picked up ideas and facts that he found useful....

John Vespasian explains that Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) produced a compelling collection of essays, but historians have exaggerated his impact on early modern philosophy. Take for instance Montaigne’s essay titled “On the custom of wearing clothes.” When Montaigne wrote this piece, he was in his early forties, living quietly in the countryside. Day after day, he retired to the tower of his ca...

John Vespasian explains that Montaigne is an extraordinary author in many aspects, great in erudition and wisdom, but not a philosophical innovator. If anything, he looked at the past more than he was looking at the future. He had drawn his more enlightened ideas from antiquity in the formulations given by Seneca (4 BC-65 AD), Plutarch (46-120 AD) or Aristotle (384-322 BC). Even his theological vi...

John Vespasian explains that Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) left behind ethical guidelines, practical and tangible, but roving and disorderly. Why? Because he cared for finding the path to happiness, but not for the implicit metaphysics, epistemology, politics and aesthetics. Due to his philosophical limitations, Montaigne has exerted a narrow influence on French literature and cultural identity....

Before devoting time to reading a classical work, it is fair to ask about its relevance today. Why should I devote my energy to reading a classic? What lessons can I possible learn from an author who lived centuries ago? John Vespasian explains that Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) is one of the few classics that passes this test with flying colours. What is the relevance level of his works today?...

John Vespasian explains that Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) made it his life’s mission to compile the wisdom of the past. He devoted twenty years of his life to writing essays, condensing the wisdom of Aristotle (384-322 BC), Seneca (4 BC-65 AD), and other ancient Greek and Roman sources. It is fair to ask whether the lessons from ancient authors are still relevant today. In fact, people had aske...

Aristotle adopted a systematic approach to studying the world, explains John Vespasian. His theory of the four causes entails that, if you want to fully understand something, you should consider four distinct causes. First, a material cause that pertains to the material substance that makes up an item or creature. For example, the material cause of a woollen suit is wool. Second, the a formal caus...

“Teleology” is derived from the Greek word “telos,” which means end, purpose, motivation or intent. Aristotle’s teleology postulates that every action in nature has a specific purpose. In Aristotle’s words, such a purpose is called “final cause.” John Vespasian explains that Aristotle believed that teleological considerations apply to living creatures and, to a lesser extent, to natural phenomena....

Aristotle did not invent the concept of the soul. John Vespasian explains that the concept was already existing in older cultures such as those of ancient Egyptians and Hinduism. In those cultures, people believed that the soul was the animating energy or force behind life, also including human life. For the ancient Egyptians and Hindus, the sole involved ideas of immortality, reincarnation, and t...

The process of philosophical development is similar to the process of learning to walk after you have suffered an injury. It takes lots of training for your muscles to work properly and in a coordinated manner. John Vespasian explains that Aristotle’s ethical philosophy is tied to his conception of the soul, but he was more reality-oriented than Plato. He did not worry so much about abstract “Form...