John Vespasian

In his works, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) pointed out that love relationships often fail because people will initially idealise their beloved, and experience a disappointment when they realise that their expectations do not match reality. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer presented those views in “The world as will and representation” (1818) and in “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851). He...

The justice definition given by Aristotle in “Nicomachean Ethics” is simple, but accurate and profound. A person behaves in accordance to justice only if he has “an habitual disposition to render to each person his due.” John Vespasian explains that the definition demands giving consistently and regularly to each person his due, not only occasionally, not only from time to time. Aristotle’s predec...

John Vespasian explains that, after Aristotle’s death in 322 BC, the next generation began to question the principles of identity and causality, and rejected Aristotle’s concept of justice. Epicurus (341-271 BC) completely distorted Aristotle’s idea of justice. Instead of viewing it as a major virtue, Epicurus did not even consider it worth pursuing. He talked of pursuing serenity and happiness, b...

Aristotle (384-322 BC) addressed human flourishing in his work, “Nicomachean Ethics.” John Vespasian explains that the key idea of “Nicomachean Ethics” is that the goal of human life should be happiness (in Greek “eudaimonia).” For Aristotle, happiness means “leading the good life” or “flourishing.” It means that the concerned person has attained steady, overall well-being, not just a fleeting ple...

John Vespasian explains that Aristotle’s understanding of human flourishing and success, as presented in the “Nicomachean Ethics” and the “Eudemian Ethics,” can be summarised in three principles. Those three key ideas are common to Plato, Taoism and Confucianism. The first principle is the need of knowledge to achieve self-actualisation, that is, to achieve one’s potential. The process of self-act...

The largest successes and failures always start with a simple principle, namely, Aristotle’s principle of causality. If you understand it and adhere to it, you should do well in life. If you ignore its existence or fail to obey it, it will wipe you out. After Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) had rediscovered every key principle of Aristotelian philosophy, one might expect later generations to observe th...

John Vespasian explains that Aristotle defined “potentiality” as “the capacity for change that creatures and entities possess.” In contrast, he defined “actuality” as the realisation of their potential. From this perspective, the whole dynamics of the world can be explained by the activities of creatures and entities to attain their potential. Thus, change of any sort (chemical, mechanical, biolog...

John Vespasian explains that the concepts of potentiality and actuality occupy the central position in Aristotle’s metaphysics. They supply an invaluable intellectual tool to assess people and events for what they are, and for what they could become. Aristotle’s concepts of potentiality and actuality encompass three key ideas. Each of them has been proven by history, but was harshly attacked by it...

John Vespasian explains that the books by Aristotle (384-322 BC) on metaphysics and logic are impressive, but we can draw practical lessons more directly by looking at his life. It’s a simple, straightforward manner to see philosophy in action. In 384 BC, Aristotle was born in Stagira, a small city on the northern coast of the Aegean Sea. Aristotle’s father (his name was Nicomachus) was the person...

John Vespasian explains that Aristotle (384-322 BC) made four decisive contributions to philosophy. First, in metaphysics, he refuted Plato’s theory of forms. While Plato had believed in a world of pure abstractions (which he called “forms”), Aristotle emphasised observing the material world. Second, Aristotle came up with the concepts of substance and form. He asserted that each item is composed...

Aristotle (384-322 BC) outlined his philosophy of mind and consciousness in his work “Metaphysics.” For the first time in history, he proposed a universal method for analysing reality in all its aspects: the cosmos, nature, and human beings. John Vespasian explains that, to develop his views on mind and consciousness, Aristotle had to let go first of Plato’s theory of forms. Plato had taught in hi...

In terms of chronology, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) preceded Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) by two generations. The worlds they inhabited were different, but Freud’s psychological insights rest upon the philosophy developed by Schopenhauer. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer outlined his philosophy in “The world as will and representation,” a book published in 1818. The theory of the will (“...

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) did not acknowledge at every opportunity an intellectual debt towards Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) because he claimed to have come up himself with the theory of the unconscious (instincts) as a driving force. John Vespasian points out that anyone familiar with Freud’s and Schopenhauer’s ideas cannot possibly fail to notice the close similarity between Freud’s theory of...

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) did not believe that real-life problems can be solved through psychological tricks. The purpose of philosophy is to understand the world, so that one can take real action to solve real problems. John Vespasian explains that, although Schopenhauer made contributions to psychology, his focus was on philosophy. He never lost sight of his primary goal, namely, to identi...

In contrast to the fragmentary prescriptions often given by psychologists, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) aimed at one comprehensive explanation for the world, including all living creatures. In his work “The world as will and representation” (1818), he argues that the will (“life force”) prompts all living creatures to ensure their own survival and reproduction, seeking short-term pleasure as we...

Even for a genius like Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), it’s far from self-evident to define success; the feeling of achievement will wane fairly quickly if people are admiring you for reasons that have little to do with your life’s purpose. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer started to experience success in 1830. He was already forty-two years old and had spent decades in obscurity, despit...

The struggling decade in the life of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) encompasses the period between 1817 and 1827, that is, the year he had devoted to writing “The world as will and representation” and the ensuing nine years. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer had very optimistic expectations for his work “The world as will and representation” and did not hesitate to pay for its publication...

As a student at the University of Berlin, Schopenhauer went to philosophy lectures given by Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814) focusing on the metaphysical ego of the German people. John Vespasian explains that Fichte’s lectures were extremely popular, but Schopenhauer found them nonsensical. He viewed Fichte’s arguments for the existence of a metaphysical German ego as inventions lacking evidence...

The biography of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) is worth studying because it provides a wonderful illustration of Schopenhauer’s ideas. He practised what he preached at each opportunity and published extensive notes about his thoughts. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer is one of the best German-language thinkers and essayists, but he was born in Danzig, which is nowadays called Gdansk and...

In the life of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), the last two decades are the illustrious years. John Vespasian explains that, during those two decades, Schopenhauer enjoyed the status of a minor celebrity in German-speaking territories. Schopenhauer published “The art of debate” (sometimes translated as “The art of controversy”) in 1839. He had turned fifty-one and was continuing with his strategy...

The ethics system proposed by Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) is similar to Ancient Stoicism in some aspects, but offers more complex explanations on the workings of nature, society, and human motivation. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer theorised that life is fundamentally marked by the influence of the will (“life force”) which will generate a large amount of suffering and dissatisfacti...

Twenty-five centuries ago, Aristotle delineated a philosophy of mind and consciousness that has never been surpassed. His principles, outlined in his books “Categories,” “Metaphysics,” and “Physics,” have withstood the passage of time. His books were written mostly in the period 340-325 BC. John Vespasian explains that the Aristotelian philosophy of mind and consciousness can be condensed in three...

The enormous achievements of Aristotle come to light when you compare his ideas with those of other thinkers. John Vespasian explains that, especially during the decade that Aristotle devoted to lecturing in Athens (335-325 BC), he came up with very accurate insights on the nature of reality and existence. As Aristotle explains in his book “Metaphysics,” each entity in the world possesses a unique...

The books “Metaphysics” and “Nicomachean Ethics” were written or dictated by Aristotle around 330 BC. They condense his insight on the nature of reality and existence. John Vespasian explains that the key idea in those works is the acknowledgement that existence exists. That essential insight leads to grasping that the world is driven by causality, and that human beings can shape their own destiny...

As soon as Aristotle passed away in 322 BC, the enormous importance of his contributions got lost for most people. Only a superficial knowledge of his philosophy remained such as the concepts of potentiality and actuality. John Vespasian explains that, to the detriment of civilisation, the pillar of Aristotle’s ideas was rapidly undermined, lost and forgotten. I am talking about causality, a conce...