The History of the Twentieth Century

The compromise under which Japan got the German concession in China was bitterly resented in China and led to a backlash against the West.

The Japanese, like the Italians, had territorial demands they wanted the peace conference to recognize. They also wanted the League of Nations to embrace racial equality.

With Italian politics becoming increasingly polarized between violent extremes, the environment is perfect for the rise of Mussolini.

After Italy's postwar territorial demands were rejected by the other Allies, Prime Minister Orlando and the Italian delegation walked out of the peace conference.

The standoff between the Turks and what remained of the Allies (Greece, backed up by Britain) leads to war.

As the USA, Italy, and France lose interest in the region, Britain fights to enforce the Treaty of Sèvres, relying on the Greek Army to provide the military might. Meanwhile, the political situation in Greece changes.

As Allied troops took up positions in Turkey, the Allies and the Ottoman government signed the Treaty of Sèvres, which imposed a harsh set of conditions. But nationalist Turks in the interior of Anatolia were not ready to give up the struggle.

The British accepted Hussein of Mecca as King of Hejaz, but when he resisted their plan to remake the Near East, they allowed the neighboring Emir of Najd to seize control.

An American archaeologist coined the term "The Fertile Crescent" just three years ago in 1916 to describe the arc of lands from Mesopotamia to Palestine that were the most fertile Arab territories. In 1919, France and Britain divided the Fertile Crescent between themselves, much to the displeasure of the Arabs living there.

In 1919, the Allies were poised to parcel out the lands of the Near East among themselves. But the inhabitants of the region had other ideas.

When the time came to determine the future of Germany's colonies, Woodrow Wilson insisted on a system of mandates that would, at least in principle, require that they be governed for the benefit of their inhabitants.

Africa had been known in Europe as the "Dark Continent." It was merely an obstacle to get around on the way to Asia, then a source of slaves, and finally a territory to exploit. Europeans took it upon themselves to educate Africans, but then educated Africans began to wonder why they still didn't have the same rights.

In the aftermath of the Russian Civil War, Lenin introduces the New Economic Policy, the USSR is organized, and prominent Socialist Revolutionaries are prosecuted for treason. Lenin falls ill in 1923 and dies in early 1924.

The October Revolution led to the brief emergence of independent nations of Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan for the first time in centuries, but their independence was not to last. Also, we look at the early days of post-Civil War Russia.

The White movement collapsed rapidly over the winter of 1919-1920, leaving the Bolsheviks in control of Russia. Even the Allies had to reconcile themselves to the new order in Russia.

The White armies opposing the new Bolshevik government in Moscow reached their peak in the autumn of 1919, when White armies were within 200 miles of Moscow and within sight of Petrograd.

The Allies supported anti-Bolshevik forces in Russia, but once the Great War ended, the Allies were in a dilemma. Abandon the White movement, or see the conflict through?

Bolshevik Russia and the western Allies tried to maintain cordial relations during 1918, but it didn't last. By the end of the year, Allied troops were in Russia and Allied governments were backing anti-Bolshevik forces.

The three Baltic states manage to become the only Imperial Russian possessions--besides Finland and Poland--to win their independence.

Finland was able to win its independence from Russia peacefully, but soon after came a bloody civil war.

The birth of Poland was a foregone conclusion, but where its boundaries should lie was very much in dispute and led to bloodshed.

By 1916, both sides in the Great War had declared their desire to see an independent Poland after the war. Now the time had come.

In this final episode on Austria-Hungary, we look at the new nations of Austria and Hungary that emerged from the old Empire. We also take a look at two young Hungarians of the time who became important figures in the US film industry.

In this episode, we look at the birth of Yugoslavia and the cession of ethnic Romanian regions of Hungary to Romania.

This first of a three-part series on the end of Austria-Hungary tells the story of the birth of Czechoslovakia.