John Vespasian

In contrast to thinkers preaching altruism and self-sacrifice, the theory of virtue developed by Aristotle (384-322 BC) aims at the achievement of happiness. John Vespasian explains that Aristotle regarded character development as a tool for facilitating happiness. Aristotle wrote two treatises presenting his theory of virtue and character development, namely, the “Nicomachean Ethics” and the “Eud...

The influence of Indian religion on Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1960) falls within a growing interest of Western thinkers in Eastern culture. John Vespasian explains that, in the field of art, such a tendency has been named “Orientalism” and is observable particularly amongst French painters. In the period 1810-1820, Schopenhauer became acquainted with Indian philosophy by reading its foundational t...

When Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) studied Indian or Hindu philosophy, he didn’t restrict himself to the foundational texts. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer read the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita but those lack the subtle interpretations made by Hindu thinkers across the centuries. Schopenhauer adopted early in his career some Hindu tenets and conveyed them, in his own words, in his...

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) deployed large efforts to study Christianity and Eastern religions. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer's goal was to draw the best ethical advice from religion. Although Schopenhauer devoted long years to studying religion, his theory of the will (“life force”) has no direct connection to religion and his ethics are equally far from divinities and devotionals...

Artistic contemplation plays a major role in the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). John Vespasian explains that art conveys reality in an immediate manner, enabling humans to grasp crucial elements without need of complex explanations. According to Schopenhauer, artistic contemplation enables people to escape the dire influence of the will (“life force”) and increase their self-awaren...

Despite his efforts to develop a coherent philosophy of art and beauty, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) missed essential elements. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer's aesthetics theory is incomplete because it defines beauty as harmony and symmetry, that is, he exclusively refers to aspects perceivable by the senses. Why is Schopenhauer’s art theory incomplete? Because it is leaving out ma...

For Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), creativity is the key element in genius. However, Schopenhauer defined creativity in an unusual way. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer was not referring to the ability to create new concepts by recombining existing ones. No, he was referring to the rare ability to come up with breakthrough, surprising ideas. His theory of the will (life force) doesn’t a...

In history, only a handful of philosophers have endorsed the views on knowledge and learning developed by Aristotle (384-322 BC). John Vespasian explains that the opposition to Aristotle’s empiricism began before his birth, that is, with his predecessors, in particular Socrates and Plato. Socrates said that true wisdom starts with recognising one’s ignorance. Aristotle considered that wisdom shoul...

The sound principles established by Aristotle (384-322 BC) in the field of ethics were quickly abandoned. His philosophy of virtue and character development gathered a vast number of enemies precisely because it is fair and realistic. John Vespasian explains that it takes a long time to develop a virtuous character. Aristotle wrote in the second book of “Nicomachean Ethics,” that the development o...

Various thinkers have tried to put rational systems of virtues and character development into practice. John Vespasian explains that their attempts have attained success to the extent that they are aligned with the ideas presented by Aristotle (384-322 BC) in his “Eudemian Ethics” and “Nicomachean Ethics.” In those works, Aristotle outlines his five key ideas about virtue and character development...

Aristotle (384-322 BC) made a large understatement in his work “Politics” by writing that “education is the best provision for old age.” He should have written that “education is the best investment one can make.” John Vespasian explains that the acquisition of a good character (a virtuous character) is the key purpose of education. Aristotle wrote in book six of his “Nicomachean Ethics” that the...

Aristotle (384-322 BC) presented his theory of aesthetics in his work “Poetics,” which is primarily devoted to literature and theatre. For defining art, Aristotle employed the Greek word “mimesis,” which means “imitation.” John Vespasian explains that every form of art involves an imitation of reality according to the artist’s standpoint. The artistic imitation of reality can be more or less accur...

Aristotle (384-322 BC) outlined his thoughts on tragedy in his work “Poetics.” He regarded tragedy as an art form evoking pity and fear, leading the audience to gain emotional resilience and wisdom. John Vespasian explains that the process of gaining resilience and wisdom from tragedy watched on stage is called “catharsis.” The key plot element in a tragedy is that the hero (who is essentially vir...

Aristotle (384-322 BC) devoted his “Poetics” to defining art and beauty, especially in the field of theatre. For Aristotle, art consists of a reality imitation or reflection (“mimesis”) with a purpose determined by the artist. John Vespasian explains that the Aristotelian concept of art goes beyond defining what is pretty, pleasant or appealing. The goal of art is not to entertain or make your tim...

In his work “Rhetoric,” Aristotle (384-322 BC) presents the three principles of effective communication and persuasion. He names them “ethos,” “pathos,” and “logos.” John Vespasian explains that “ethos” refers to the persuasive appeal of the speaker’s own personality. If a speaker possesses credibility, trustworthiness, and charisma, he can influence the audience more easily. By “pathos”, Aristotl...

The problem of evil was addressed by Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) by referring to the theory of the will (“life force”), which constitutes the pillar of his philosophy. Schopenhauer defined the will as the force driving living creatures to secure their survival and reproduction, and seek pleasure. John Vespasian explains that, according to Schopenhauer, the will creates endless human desires. A...

In his work “Rhetoric,” Aristotle (384-322 BC) identified a triad of pillars for persuasion and effective speaking. John Vespasian explains that the three pillars (ethos, pathos and logos) refer to the three key elements in communication, namely, the speaker’s fame and credibility, the strength of his arguments, and their emotional impact. Although it only takes a few of hours to familiarise onese...

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) wrote extensively about the phenomenon of genius. His notes provide clues on how to increase one’s creativity and critical thinking. They give hands-on advice on increasing one’s self-awareness and self-reliance. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer observed that geniuses appear to be fearless, or at least, less fearful than the average person. In “Parerga and...

The philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) about the nature of evil stands in sharp contrast to other thinkers. For Schopenhauer, evil is a natural phenomenon. It’s the inevitable outcome of the will (“life force”) when left to operate freely. John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer attributes evil to the life force that prompts all living creatures to secure their survival and reproducti...

Did Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) provide a waterproof answer to problem of evil? John Vespasian explains that Schopenhauer had based his analysis of evil on his theory of the will. He built his logic on the assumption that the will (a wild, irrational, cosmic force) can take control of humans, and drive them to engage in exploitation, victimisation, and abuses. Aristotle (384-322 BC) knew much...

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) devoted his whole life to intellectual pursuits. In particular, he gave extensive thought to their contribution to happiness. John Vespasian explains that intellectual pursuits are commendable when they help fight the negative influence of the will. I mean intellectual pursuits, studies and debates that render individuals self-aware, prudent, and self-reliant. Those...

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) regarded intellectual and cultural pursuits as potentially detrimental; he recommended to steer away from pursuits that generate unworkable desires and ambitions. Before investing oneself in those, one should figure out the consequences. John Vespasian explains that Aristotle (384-322 BC) must have turned in his grave when learning about Schopenhauer’s views on inte...

For what concerns intellectual and cultural pursuits, are the views of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) fully original or do they rely on prior philosophers? They are original because they are adding unique, innovative elements to the insights of prior thinkers. John Vespasian explains that, if we want to find philosophers that somewhat anticipate Schopenhauer in this respect, we need to go back tw...

The relationship between art and morality plays a secondary role in the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). In this area, Schopenhauer failed to establish consistent principles and incurred contradictions. Nevertheless, it teaches us lessons that are worth examining. John Vespasian explains that, for Schopenhauer, artistic experiences (he was in particular referring to playing music and...

For Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), wisdom is an effect from philosophy. John Vespasian explains that, according to Schopenhauer, wisdom is a practical outcome from philosophical study, especially from the study of the will (“life force”), which he regarded as the driving force of living creatures. In his book “The world as will and representation” (1818), Schopenhauer outlined his theory of the...