John Vespasian

The historical influence of Aristotle (384-322 BC) rests on the labours of one man, namely, Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). I find it remarkable that Aquinas made Aristotle’s philosophy popular even though he had never intended to do so. Aquinas was an Italian Dominican monk and theologian, who aimed at spreading Christian ideals. He could not care less about Aristotelian ideas as such, but he had rea...

The views of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) on the role of reason differ from those of prior philosophers. On the one hand, Schopenhauer is more realistic. He does hold reason in high regard, but acknowledges the strong influence of impulses in human decisions. On the other hand, Schopenhauer observes that it takes substantial effort to use reason assiduously. The ancient Greek philosopher Epicur...

The search for happiness relies on certainty in reasoning and effectiveness in action. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) coined a brand of moral relativism that, he assumed, could help us reduce mistakes in reasoning. Montaigne’s arguments give us abundant food for thought, in particular when it comes to making crucial decisions. How much can you trust your perceptions and logic? What mistakes are t...

We all need clear philosophical principles to make accurate, quick decisions. In the absence of principles, decisions depend on emotions, prejudice and superstition. The essayist Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) asked himself how to make good decisions, and recorded his reasoning in detail. Montaigne was puzzled by the wide variety of opinions that people hold when confronted with the same facts. H...

Many people today ask themselves if all cultures are equal, or if some cultures are superior to others; the question is as old as humanity, and the answer is crucially important. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) asked himself this same question in the sixteenth century, and examined in great detail the arguments from both sides. His careful philosophical analysis is still worth reading nowadays. In...

The question of cultural relativism has profound, wide- and long-reaching implications. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) emerged in the sixteenth century as the most prominent defender of moral and cultural relativism, but never grasped the full impact of his arguments. For instance, Montaigne failed to grasp the implications of seemingly anodyne statements such as “pleasure can never be pure, beca...

Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) devoted twenty years of his life to writing essays on everything under the sun. He chose questions that he found intriguing, researched them thoroughly, and enumerated the arguments in favour and against. Although Montaigne deployed massive efforts to research, he seldom reached definite conclusions on anything. He gave a detailed overview of facts and their possibl...

Despite his extensive writings, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) produced a rather limited set of ideas. His philosophical system revolves around the theory of the will (“life force”) that he regarded as the prime mover of all living entities. Let's review Schopenhauer's main ideas. First and foremost, Schopenhauer rebelled against the ideas of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)...

The influence of Aristotle (384-322 BC) on Western ideals, philosophy and society has been a slow and difficult process. I tend to choose direct ways when it comes to business, learning, and problem solving but Aristotelian ideas survived and spread only indirectly. Before Aristotle’s works became popular in twelve-century Europe, they had been preserved in Eastern countries. Without the studies m...

For Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), wisdom is an effect of philosophy. I define wisdom as practical ethics, that is, a set of principles that enables humans to make quick decisions in all life’s situations. Wisdom is not necessarily sophisticated, but it must rest on sound philosophical footing. According to Schopenhauer, wisdom is a practical outcome from philosophical study, especially from the...

In his work “Metaphysics,” Aristotle presents the concept of the prime mover. Philosophers have also called it the unmoved mover, the prime cause, the prime mover, or the first cause. All those terms have the same meaning, namely, the idea that there is a single entity responsible for everything that happens. Aristotle (384-322 BC) was not the first philosopher to put forward the theory of a singl...

Can a person become happy if he refrains from taking sides, making decisions, and pursuing clear objectives? Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) addressed this subject in his essay “On Moderation,” where he praises moderation as a crucial virtue. Montaigne defines “moderation” as the contrary to “extreme ideas and behaviour.” Thus, he is giving a subjective definition where “moderation” means the midd...

Seldom has a philosopher devoted so much effort to writing about human nature. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) spent two decades doing research about philosophy and psychology, gathering lessons about happiness. Montaigne’s objective was to identify the best patterns of behaviour, those that promote individual and social happiness. He read everything about Socrates (470-399 BC), as recorded by Pla...

For twenty years, Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) wrote incessantly about human nature. He did extensive research and addressed a myriad of individual and societal issues. What is the main lesson that he drew from his philosophical studies? Montaigne presented this lesson in his essay “On pedantry,” but I must first explain what he meant by “pedantry.” In the sixteenth century, the word “pedantry”...

Inflation in usage has devalued the word “friend.” In today’s parlance, “friend” doesn’t even mean acquaintance. People call “friends” individuals they have never met and with whom they have little in common. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) wrote extensively about friendship, which he rightly viewed as one of the greatest joys in life. His essay “On friendship” is known to students of the French l...

Ethical aspects are often underrated by individuals seeking personal growth. Psychology discussions tend to focus on pre-conceptions, personal history, and logical errors rather than on virtue. As a result, happiness is randomly defined, haphazardly pursued, and serendipitously achieved. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) held a different view. At an early age, he had discovered the strong connection...

I am always amazed to see people devote vast energies to growing “more effective” without having a clear idea of their goals. How is one supposed to measure “effectiveness” if there is no avowed goal to pursue? Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) was suspicious of vague promises in any area of life. He considered it self-evident that the first step is to define one’s goals, and that “effectiveness” is...

I find it reasonable to question any ethical system that does not deliver success and happiness. What’s the point of being a good person if there are no tangible rewards? Why should one practise virtue if it does not bring practical advantages? Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) asked those questions in the context of the sixteenth century, but today’s circumstances are not fundamentally different. W...

Imagine devoting two decades of your life to writing dozens of essays with no expectation of anyone ever reading them. For most people, such a perspective would not make sense. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) thought otherwise. Why? Because he was primarily writing for himself. There were a few best-selling books in the sixteenth century but they made little money for their authors. Literature bec...

In the vast critical commentary on the essays by Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), I haven’t found detailed explanations of Montaigne’s writing method. The question is intriguing and worth answering: Montaigne proved capable of producing dozens of high-quality essays, but he lacked sophisticated tools. He possessed a relatively small book collection, paper, ink, a feather, and a writing desk. How d...

Nowadays, writers privilege structure above all. Before they write down the first word, they want to know precisely where they are going. They want to select in advance their destination and all the stops along the way. For writing his essays, Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) embraced a different approach; he managed to supply structure and pace to his works without doing lots of advance planning....

When in doubt, it is wise to develop a theory and check if it matches the facts; experience will tell us if the theory is correct or if it needs revising. Trial and error can prove tiresome but it is the best of methods to figure out the truth. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) wasn’t a scientist, but he possessed an immense curiosity. He read incessantly (although his library was not large), asked...

I have a simple definition of wisdom. It consists of just seven words. I define wisdom as “the habit of seeing what is hidden.” It is a short, but highly demanding definition, which disqualifies most mindless rituals and educated nonsense. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) never quite managed to define wisdom, but his writings interpreted it in a fashion that astonished his contemporaries. He would...

Wisdom without controversy is soon forgotten, in the same way as one forgets unused knowledge, unused spare parts, and unused train tickets. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) made a conscious decision to use controversy in his essays, precisely because he wanted the lessons to be learned and not forgotten. Besides, Montaigne found it much more interesting to write about unorthodox, dissonant ideas;...

Life would be much easier if we could reduce ethics to just one concept. Would it not be great if we could make decisions and implementation plans that always hit the target? Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) took upon himself the task of reducing ethics to one concept, and he succeeded pretty well. Montaigne believed that self-discipline constitutes the pillar that sustains ethics, success and pers...