Introduction to Philosophy

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's Monadology proposes that the universe consists of simple, indivisible substances called monads, each possessing perception and appetition. These monads, differing in quality, are distinct from one another and represent the entire universe from their unique perspective. Leibniz argues for the existence of God as the necessary substance that grounds the existence and harm...

Leibniz argues for God's creation as the best possible world, defining God's attributes (omniscience, omnipotence) and explaining the relationship between God, individual substances (monads), and the universe. He distinguishes between efficient and final causes, highlighting the role of God's will and understanding in governing events. Finally, he addresses the nature of human free will within thi...

The first rationalist we will cover is Rene Descartes. Descartes details his methodical approach to doubting established beliefs, aiming to construct a firm foundation for truth. The excerpt covers his skepticism, his four maxims for reasoning, and his proofs for the existence of God and the human soul. Further, it summarizes his physics, focusing on the motion of the heart and the distinction bet...

The Meditations introduces Descartes's innovative method of achieving certain knowledge by systematically doubting all previously held beliefs, ultimately establishing the Cogito ("I think, therefore I am") as a foundational truth.

The second of the "British Empiricists" that will be covered is George Berkeley. George Berkeley's A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge argues against the existence of matter, asserting that all things exist only in the mind of God. He refutes the concept of abstract ideas, showing how they are based on language rather than genuine mental constructs. Berkeley contends that sensa...

The third of the "British Empiricists" is John Locke, also known for his political philosophy and his Treatises on Government (check out our episode on the second treatise). Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding , presented here in excerpts, explores the origins and nature of human knowledge. Locke argues against the existence of innate ideas, proposing instead that all knowledge stems from...

Kick off the new season Rationalism vs. Empiricism with the empiricist David Hume. A Treatise of Human Nature explores the nature of human understanding and the passions. Sections cover topics like inference, belief, probability, causality, and the will. The text further investigates the nature of identity, reason in animals, and the origins of morality, ultimately proposing a system based on expe...

Hume's Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding is much shorter than the Treatise but is known to be more precise and clear. Hume argues for an empiricist and instrumentalist approach to knowledge. He emphasized the role of experience and custom over reason in forming beliefs, notably concerning causation and miracles.

Plato's Meno primarily explores the question of whether virtue can be taught. Socrates and Meno engage in a discussion that examines various definitions of virtue, ultimately concluding that it is neither innate nor learned but rather a divinely bestowed gift. The text also introduces Plato's theory of reminiscence, suggesting that learning is a process of recollecting pre-existing knowledge from...

Plato's Republic explores the nature of justice. Socrates, through dialogues with various interlocutors, investigates different definitions of justice, ultimately arguing that a just life is superior to an unjust one, both in terms of individual well-being and societal harmony. The discussion extends to ideal forms of government, education, and the soul's composition, utilizing metaphors like the...

Plato's Crito is a dialogue depicting a conversation between Socrates.and his friend Crito in prison, shortly before Socrates' execution. Critourges Socrates to escape, emphasizing the negative consequences for Crito and other friends if Socrates remains. Socrates, however, refuses, arguing that escaping would violate his moral principles and break a social contract with Athens. He believes it is...

Plato's Apology is a transcription of Socrates' defense speech at his trial in Athens. Socrates recounts accusations leveled against him, including impiety and corrupting the youth. He defends himself by explaining his philosophical method of questioning those believed wise, revealing their lack of true knowledge. Ultimately, Socrates accepts his death sentence with calm dignity, asserting his com...

Plato's Phaedo is a dialogue exploring the immortality of the soul. Socrates, awaiting execution, presents various arguments for the soul's pre-existence and continued existence after death, engaging his disciples in philosophical debate. These arguments draw upon Pythagorean and other philosophical traditions, including the theory of Forms and the concept of recollection. The dialogue also featur...

This text is an excerpt from Plato's Timaeus , a dialogue focusing on cosmology and the creation of the universe. Socrates, Critias, and Timaeus discuss the ideal state, leading to Critias recounting a legend from Solon about Atlantis, a powerful island civilization destroyed by natural catastrophe. Timaeus then elaborates on Plato's theory of Forms, explaining the creation of the cosmos and its i...

Plato's Symposium is a dialogue exploring the nature of love through speeches given by various characters at a banquet. The text provides an introduction analyzing the dialogue's structure and philosophical depth, followed by the full dialogue itself. Socrates' speech, recounted by Aristodemus, is central, presenting Diotima's teachings on love as a philosophical journey towards the eternal and ab...

Plato's Allegory of the Cave, uses the metaphor of prisoners chained in a cave, only seeing shadows projected on a wall, to illustrate the difference between perception and reality. The prisoners mistake shadows for reality until one escapes, experiencing the painful transition to the outside world and the illuminating power of the sun. This escape represents the journey of the soul toward knowled...

Book 12 of Aristotle's Metaphysics discusses his conception of the unmoved mover, an eternal and immaterial being. The unmoved mover is the ultimate source of all motion and change in the world. He argues that the unmoved mover is not affected by the world, but instead, is the final cause.

Aristotle's Metaphysics Book 13 discusses the philosophical problem of substance. Aristotle tackles the existence of mathematical objects, such as numbers and geometrical figures, and explores arguments for and against their existence as separate entities. He then critiques Plato's theory of Forms, examining the various arguments for their existence and the problems associated with them, including...

Season Finale!! Aristotle critiques earlier philosophical attempts to explain the fundamental principles of reality using numbers. Aristotle argues against the idea that numbers, either as abstract entities or as "Forms," are the ultimate constituents of the universe. He challenges the methodologies and assumptions of thinkers like the Pythagoreans, highlighting inconsistencies and logical flaws i...

Aristotle examines multiple meanings of key terms, including "beginning," "cause," "element," and "nature," analyzing their various applications and relationships. He further defines concepts like "necessary," "one," "same," "other," "prior," "posterior," "potency," "quantum," "quality," "relative," "complete," "limit," "disposition," "having," "affection," "privation," "holding," "coming from," "...

In Book 10 Aristotle attempts to define the concept of being. In this excerpt, Aristotle explores the concept of unity (or “one”), examining its different meanings and investigating how it relates to concepts like plurality, difference, contrariety, and measure.

In Book 11, Aristotle explores the nature of wisdom and its object of study. He argues that wisdom must be a science of first principles, but grapples with defining these principles. He rejects the idea of forms as separate entities, and analyzes the possibility of wisdom being concerned with mathematical objects or perceptible substances, ultimately concluding that it must be a separate disciplin...

Aristotle begins by outlining various perspectives on what constitutes substance: natural substances like fire and water, mathematical objects, and the more abstract concepts of essence and substratum. He then proceeds to delve into the nature of sensible substances, arguing that they possess matter, which exists potentially, and form, which represents actuality. The excerpt highlights key concept...

In Book 9 Aristotle explores concepts of potency and actuality. Aristotle argues that actuality is prior to potency and that things exist potentially when they have the capacity to become something else, and actually when they have achieved that state of being. He distinguishes between different types of potency.

The text examines the different ways in which terms like "beginning," "cause," "element," "nature," "necessary," "one," "being," "substance," "same," "other," "different," "like," "opposite," "prior," "posterior," "potency," "quantum," "quality," "relative," "complete," "limit," "that in virtue of which," "disposition," "having," "affection," "privation," "holding," "coming from," "part," "whole,"...