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Grand Central is a terminal, not a station, because trains end and turn around there, though the building on the site from 1900 to 1910 really was Grand Central Station. Cornelius Vanderbilt consolidated rail lines into Grand Central Depot in 1871, but steam smoke blinded engineers in the Park Avenue tunnel, and a 1902 crash killed 15 people. New York then banned steam locomotives in Manhattan fro...

The St Paul's Cathedral standing today is the fifth church on its London site, which began with King Ethelbert's church in AD 604. The Norman Old St Paul's, begun after a fire in 1087, had a spire nearly 489 feet high. During the Reformation, Lord Mayor Sir Rowland Hill was ordered in 1550 to destroy the high altar, but evidence suggests he moved it and the relics of St Erkenwald to Soulton Hall i...

The Great Wall is a system of fortifications totaling 21,196.18 kilometers from Liaodong to Lop Lake, and the name itself is a 19th century European label. Chinese sources used Changcheng, long wall, with a character first meaning a city rampart, and Wanli Changcheng, where ten thousand meant countless. Warring states such as Qi and Qin built earth walls against each other until Qin Shi Huang unif...

Serpent Mound in Adams County, Ohio, is the largest surviving serpent effigy in the world: 1,348 feet long, about 20 feet wide, with seven coils, a triple-coiled tail, and open jaws facing a 120 foot oval. It was built by hand with bone, stone, and wooden tools and baskets of yellowish clay and ash, faced with rock against erosion. Squier and Davis mapped it for the Smithsonian in 1848 and read th...

The Great Mosque of Djenné in Mali stands on a platform about 75 by 75 meters, raised three meters above the market to stay dry when the Bani River floods. It is built of sun-dried ferey bricks set in sand and earth mortar and coated in plaster, with toron, bundles of palm sticks jutting 60 centimeters from the walls, serving as permanent scaffolding. Three minarets on the qibla wall reach up to 1...

The Palace of Westminster began as a royal residence in the 11th century under kings such as Edward the Confessor and William II. After a fire in 1512, Henry VIII moved to Whitehall and left the complex to Parliament and the courts, with the Commons later meeting in St Stephen's Chapel. In 1834 workmen burning obsolete Exchequer tally sticks overloaded the stoves beneath the House of Lords and set...

In the fifth century BC the Eleans of Elis, keepers of the Olympic Games, had just built a new temple of Zeus at Olympia and wanted a centerpiece to outshine Athens. They hired Phidias, the sculptor of the Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon, and he produced a seated Zeus about 12.4 meters tall, so large that Strabo said the god would unroof the temple if he stood. Inspired by the scene in the Iliad...

Darius I founded Persepolis around 515 BC on the Marvdasht plain, on a terrace partly cut from the Rahmat mountain and covering 125,000 square meters. It was a ceremonial capital for receptions and Nowruz rather than daily administration, which ran from Susa, Babylon, and Ecbatana. Elamite payroll tablets show the builders were paid laborers, Egyptians, Babylonians, Ionians, Lydians, Thracians, an...

Ludwig II of Bavaria grew up at Hohenschwangau, sketching the ruins of twin medieval castles on the crag above, and took the throne at 18 as a constitutional monarch with little real power. When his grandfather died in 1868, the freed appanage funded a castle inspired by the Wartburg and Pierrefonds and conceived as a temple to Richard Wagner's Tannhäuser and Lohengrin. He hired stage designer Chr...

John A. Roebling, a German immigrant engineer behind the Delaware Aqueduct, proposed in 1857 a bridge over the East River linking New York and Brooklyn, then separate cities that relied on ferries. His hybrid design combined suspension cables with diagonal stays, cleared 127 feet above mean high water, and was built six to eight times stronger than his calculations required because he feared the w...

The 1893 World's Columbian Exposition marked 400 years since Columbus and drew over 27 million visitors when the US population was about 65 million. Chicago beat New York for it on the eighth ballot in the House after banker Lyman Gage raised millions more in 24 hours. Daniel Burnham and Frederick Law Olmsted turned swampy Jackson Park into a Beaux-Arts city made of staff, a mix of plaster, cement...

In 1557 Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent committed 300,000 in silver to replace a swaying chain bridge over the Neretva in Mostar. The job went to Mimar Hayruddin, a student of Mimar Sinan, who by legend arranged his own funeral for the day the scaffolding came down. His single humpbacked arch, four meters wide, nearly 30 meters across, and 24 meters above the summer river, became the widest human-...

In 1802 French engineer Albert Mathieu-Favier pitched Napoleon a tunnel under the English Channel lit by oil lamps, with horse-drawn coaches and an artificial island for changing horses. In 1881 Sir Edward Watkin and Alexandre Lavalley bored more than a mile on each side before British military panic stopped them, fears mocked in a cartoon of General Wolseley fleeing on a terrified lion. A 1929 pl...

Knossos sits on Kefala Hill, a few kilometers south of Heraklion on Crete, where people lived continuously from about 7000 BC. The first palace went up around 1900 BC, an earthquake destroyed it around 1700 BC, and the Minoans rebuilt a grander second palace of roughly 20,000 square meters around a central court. They used timber-reinforced masonry to flex in earthquakes, downward-tapering columns...

Around 2600 BC, Pharaoh Khufu's pyramid rose on the Giza Plateau, over 481 feet tall and sheathed in polished white Tura limestone that would have glared under the Egyptian sun. The slave army image comes from Herodotus, writing more than 2,000 years later. Excavated workers' villages instead show conscripted farmers, averaging about 13,200 and peaking near 40,000 during the Nile flood, organized...

Every Gothic cathedral fights lateral thrust, the outward push created when a heavy stone vault presses down on thin walls. The flying buttress solved it with two parts: a freestanding pier anchored in the ground and an arched flyer that carries the force across open air. Stacked flyers handled both the vault and the wind hitting timber roofs, while the pinnacles on top acted as heavy paperweights...

Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr., president of Kaufmann's department store in Pittsburgh, wanted a country home at Bear Run in the Laurel Highlands, where his family had a rustic, unheated cabin they called the Hangover and where his store employees once had a summer retreat. He ended up with Frank Lloyd Wright, then in his late 60s and seen as washed up after designing only two buildings in six years, becau...

The Dakota, New York City's oldest remaining luxury apartment building, was mocked as Clark's Folly when Singer sewing machine head Edward Cabot Clark built it at 72nd Street and Central Park West, then a muddy outpost an hour by carriage from the Ladies' Mile. In the 1880s apartment blocks meant tenements, so Clark and architect Henry Janeway Hardenbergh built a Northern Renaissance fortress betw...

Oscar Niemeyer, born in Rio de Janeiro in 1907, was a bohemian youth until he married Annita Baldo at 21, finished an architecture degree in 1934, and worked in his father's typography shop to get by. He insisted on working unpaid for Lúcio Costa, the pioneer of Brazilian modernism, and when Costa brought in Le Corbusier for the Ministry of Education and Health in Rio, Niemeyer adapted the plans t...

After the Great Fire of 64 AD, Nero seized the burned heart of Rome for his Golden House, the Domus Aurea, with a private lake and a colossal bronze statue of himself. When the Flavian dynasty took power, Vespasian drained the lake into the Cloaca Maxima and built a public amphitheater on the site, paid for with plunder from the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD. He named it the Flavian Amphitheater, bu...

For centuries Pompeii's destruction was dated to August of 79 AD, based on accepted translations of Pliny the Younger's letter. Then in 2018 archaeologists found a charcoal inscription in a house under renovation, dated the 16th day before the Kalends of November, or October 17. Heavy wool cloaks on victims, chestnuts, figs, and walnuts, sealed wine jars, and a silver coin bearing a title Titus re...

The Millau Viaduct in southern France began with a summer traffic jam. In the 1980s the A75 and A71 autoroutes ran from Paris toward Spain, but at the town of Millau drivers had to leave the highway, descend into the Tarn River gorge, cross a single old bridge, and climb back out, leaving holiday traffic and freight trucks stuck for hours. Planners weighed a Great Eastern route, a Great Western ro...

Hoover Dam was born from fear of the Colorado River, which flooded in spring and dried to a trickle by late summer. After a canal to California's newly branded Imperial Valley was breached, the river poured into a desert basin for two years and created the Salton Sea, and the Southern Pacific Railroad spent $3 million forcing it back. When the St. Francis Dam collapsed in March 1928 and killed up...

Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, holds the Guinness World Record for the highest density of white marble buildings, with a dental hospital shaped like a tooth, an airport terminal shaped like a falcon, and a development bank topped with a giant coin. It sits in a narrow oasis between the Karakum desert and the Kopetdag mountains, about 30 miles from Iran, on a fault line. Its roots go back t...

The Flatiron Building sits on a scalene right triangle created where Broadway, an old Native American trail, cuts diagonally across Manhattan's 1811 grid at Fifth Avenue and 22nd and 23rd Streets. In 1857 Amos Eno bought the block for $32,000, built the seven-story Cumberland apartments, and rented its exposed north wall to advertisers, including the New York Times with the city's first electric s...